Intravenous Paracetamol to manage pain Research Proposal

Intravenous Paracetamol to manage pain - Research Proposal Example Patients are bound to experience pain after the effect of anaesthesia given before surgery is finally gone. White et al (2010) had reported a result of surveys in Europe and the USA, stating the need to improve the quality of managing pain after surgeries. The practice then was to use opioids which have multiple adverse effects (AEs): constipation, urinary retention, vomiting/nausea, allergic reactions, confusion, sedation, respiratory depression, and hypotension. These AEs increased the cost of hospitalization and delayed the recovery of patients. A better way of managing pain was then under clinical trials for 15 years. It involved the use of analgesics that require less opioids. There was no FDA approved Intravenous Acetaminophen at that time. Cadence Pharmaceuticals Inc. patented the first I.V. Paracetamol in July 8, 2011 (US SEC 2011) and produced Ofirmev which, until the present, does not have a competitor worldwide due to the recognized protection for intellectual property. Th is gathered evidence about the efficacy and safety of using Ofirmev (the only available US FDA approved Intravenous Acetaminophen in the market), how it benefits patients, and actually improved the quality of pain management. There were evidences based on actual clinical trials with patients that proved the efficacy and safety of Intravenous Paracetamol to neonates, infants, children, adolescents, adults, and even the elderly with age 65 years old and above, for mild, moderate, and severe cases of pain, especially postoperative pain. Introduction Focus is given to the extent of actual benefits observed in many clinical trials, limitations, and clarifications pertaining to the use of I.V. Paracetamol use for postoperative pain management. As a background, over a year after the introduction of the US FDA approved injectable pain reliever under the brand name Ofirmev, doctors have pursued further clinical trials in Europe and the USA covering thousands of patients. One of the reference s of this paper took the effort to search for registered clinical trials in order to learn more about efficacy, safety, proportion of patients who responded favourably or not, to mostly postoperative cases. It would be interesting to know under what conditions I.V. Acetaminophen should be administered to patients. What procedures were followed? Why? There are very young to very old patients who encounter the need for surgery. How should it be given? In actual experiences, was it safe to administer the use of this analgesic to any of such patients? What are the chances of having a satisfied postoperative patient after using Ofirmev? For one thing, doctors excluded patients with symptoms pointing to contraindications against the use of Intravenous Acetaminophen. These are situations wherein patients have severe liver disease, hepatic impairment and active hepatic disease, allergic to acetaminophen, chronic malnutrition, severe renal impairment, and to patients with history of being al coholic. The US FDA (2012a) announced that the limitation per dosage of acetaminophen should be 325 mg. while the total maximum dosage per day must not exceed 4 grams. For infants, the recommended dose of the US FDA for acetaminophen in vial is only 50 mL per child weighing less than 33 kg. (US FDA 2012b, p.12) There were cases of acetaminophen over dosages in infants and adults in the past. For adults, from 1998 to 2003, a total of 131 people experienced â€Å"acute liver failure in the United States† due to acetaminophen overdose (US FDA 2012a). Nonetheless, the medical practice has changed from using mostly opioids like morphine and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to the preferred use of Intravenous Acetaminophen in combination with less opioids only when needed, for reasons that will be disclosed in this paper. Problem and Purpose Quality management of postoperative pain requires provisions for the comfortable recovery of patients right after surgery. Unfor tunately, the use of opioids to

Global Warming Essay Example for Free

Global Warming Essay Global Warming is an issue that concerns almost everybody worldwide: it is the primary cause for the erratic and sometimes devastating weather that is experienced around the world. Global warming is causing the rise in sea level which in turn causes the flooding of coastal areas and areas with low elevation. Is global warming really happening today? Scientists with the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) believe it is so. It is indisputable that there has been a rise in the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere during the last century, which scientists think may be one of the causes of global warming. II. Discussion A. Global Warming and doomsday Will global warming spell doom for our world? Scientists believe this to be so. Much depends on what actions we take now and in the coming years. Meteorologist Jagadish Shukla of the University of Maryland found out that deforestation would cause rainfall in the Amazon River to decline by more than 26 percent from the current 2. 5 m. to about 1. 8 m. a year. At the same time, the burning of fossil fuels, particularly coal and oil, produces sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which are hazardous to the atmosphere. Findings show that a single smokestack may produce as much as 500 tons of sulfur dioxide a day. When these gases combine with oxygen and moisture, sulfuric acid and nitric acid is formed. The rain will carry the acids to the ground (acid rain) which may cause the depletion of calcium and magnesium in the soil, elements needed by plants for the formation of chlorophyll and wood, or it may cause the release of aluminum in the soil, which are poisonous and can kill the roots of trees (Carwardine, 2000). According to Dr. Sadik, UN population fund’s director, said that the more people increased pressure on already stressed lands, forests and water supplies. Other sources of climatic change were attributed to some forms of gases such as nitrous oxide, methane and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (Cronin, 2001). Nitrous oxide or laughing gas is a colorless gas with a sweet taste and odor that is used as an anaesthetic in minor surgery that H2O is responsible for about 6 percent of the human contributes to greenhouse warming. Methane or cow gas, on the other hand, makes up about 18 percent of human contributions to greenhouse effect. Cattle, sheep, goats, and other cud-chewing animals give off methane, in burps and flatulence as they digest. CFCs was discovered by Thomas Widgley Jr. , a chemist working at the Frigidaire Division of General Motors, used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners and aerosol propellants in spray cans, medical sterilizers, cleaning solvents for electronic components and raw materials for making plastic foams such as coffee cups. CFCs are estimated to account for 14 percent of global warming. Experts said that what is happening right now is not a matter of adding a few degrees to the average temperature of a community. A rise of this magnitude may cause life, for without the environment, creatures on earth cannot survive (Davidson, 2003). B. Recommendations a. ) Recycling and Reuse of Solid Wastes Solid wastes are now viewed as a potential resource which must be recovered and reused whenever possible. Since disposal forest resources are rapidly being depleted, recycling solid wastes offer a solution to both. Consider the element phosphorus. Mined from phosphate ores, it is manufactured into fertilizers. It enters the plant tissues and we obtain it when we eat plant as vegetable. This is later excreted and joins the sewage system. The sewage system sludge can be used directly as fertilizer or soil conditioner. b. ) Conserving our Forests Every now and then we receive alarming news about our forests being denuded. Big logging concessionaires indiscriminately cut down trees without undertaking reforestation measures. III. Conclusion Of all issues affecting humanity, climate change is the most pervasive and truly global, posing a very real and serious threat to our environment. Climate change is the alteration of the pattern of global climate that may be due to human activity that alters the composition of the atmosphere. If present day emissions of greenhouse gases continue, it is estimated that the rate of increase in global mean temperatures will reach about 0. 3o C per decade. This will mean a likely increase of 1o C above the present level by the year 2025, and 3o C before the end of the next century. Reference: 1. Carwardine, Mark (2000). The WWF Environment Handbook. London: Macdonald Optima. Attractively illustrated handbook for the general reader. 2. Cronin, Helena (2001). The Ant and the Peacock: Altruism and Sexual Selection from Darwin to Today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chapters 2, 3, 4 (pp. 7-110). 3. Davidson, Joan (2003). How Green is your City? Pioneering Approaches to Environmental Action. London: Bedford Square Press. Guide to community action for urban renewal.

All Around the Town :: All Around the Town

All Around the Town    Mary Higgins Clark started her writing career writing suspense stories and she hasn't changed very much since then.   All her books are very interesting to read and they will always keep your attention to the end.  Ã‚     All Around the Town was one of the stories written by Mary Higgins Clark.   This book was a suspenseful, interesting, intriguing book.   It held my interest until the end.   The plot was twisty and unpredictable which meant that I would never get bored.   The story takes place in Ridgewood, New Jersey.   It takes place from June 1974 to about September 1991.   This effects the rest of the story because this is the time period that the main character had her abduction and her multiple personalities started to form.     The main character in this story was Laurie Kenyon, a four year old girl in the beginning of the story who eventually grows up to be a twenty-one year old woman.   She has blond hair, green eyes and a fragile little body.   Sarah Kenyon is present throughout the story.   She is Laurie's sister and helps Laurie deal with all her problems as best she can.   Bic and Opal were Laurie's abductors.   Bic had a beard and his arms had a lot of curly hair.   He was a very domineering person towards Opal and Laurie.   Opal had long stringy hair and had a plain face.   She was passive and did whatever she was told.   They were con-artist who fooled everyone they met.   They were mean and didn't care about anybody else but themselves.   Justin Donnelly was the psychiatrist who helped Laurie with therapy and helped find the real person that was within her all along.     The story begins when Laurie Kenyon was abducted by Bic and Opal when she was four years old.   They abused her sexually and mentally when they had her for those two, long, tedious years.   When they were doing these things to her such as sexually abusing her she would place herself in a different state of mind, which over time began to be her altered personalities.   She had four main altered personalities which were Leona, the woman in Laurie, Debbie, the baby or woos, Kate, the strong leader of the bunch, and Lee, the little scared shy nine year old boy who helped, in the end, bring all the personalities together as one.

Some People Think Parents Should Read or Tell Stories to Children

Some people think parents should read or tell stories to children, while others think parents need not do that, as children can read books, watch TVs or movies by themselves. Discuss both views and give your opinion. Parenting is always a heated topic in our society. What is the best way for children to read and learn? Some people insist on the more traditional method by reading or telling stories to children rather than letting children learn by themselves through books, TV and internet . As far as I am concerned, two complementary methods are necessary to be applied to motivate children to read and learn.It is evident that reading or telling stories to their children is not only a way of learning but also a good approach to strenghten the tie between parents and children. It brings much more happiness to families and make family bond closer. Furthermore reading or telling stories to children is a a more entertaining method thought which children get more enjoyment and a metheod chi ldren perhaps prefer. Consequently children`s interest in reading and learning would easily be motivated. Many of us could remember the lovely moment when we were looking forward to listening for stories before we went to bed.However, independent learning is a vital capacity for â€Å"old† children and young adults. Therefore parents should encourage their children to read and learn by themselves, searching information through various sources such as books, internet as well as TV. For children would be growing up and be independent to face the complicated society one day. This ability would help them much no matter what they do in the future. To sum up, each method discussed above has its merit to be considered as a proper way which parents employ to foster their children a good reading and learning habit and ability.

Research Paper on Crohn’s Disease Essay

Crohn’s disease is an inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). It causes inflammation of the lining of your digestive tract, which can lead to abdominal pain, severe diarrhea and even malnutrition. Inflammation caused by Crohn’s disease can involve different areas of the digestive tract in different people. The inflammation caused by Crohn’s disease often spreads deep into the layers of affected bowel tissue. Like ulcerative colitis, another common IBD, Crohn’s disease can be both painful and debilitating, and sometimes may lead to life-threatening complications. Although it may involve any part of the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus, it most commonly affects the last part of the small intestine (ileum) and/or the large intestine (colon and rectum). Any age group may be affected, but the majority of patients are young adults between 16 and 40 years old. Crohn’s disease occurs most commonly in people living in northern climates. It affects men and women equally and appears to be common in some families. About 20 percent of people with Crohn’s disease have a relative, most often a brother or sister, and sometimes a parent or child, with some form of inflammatory bowel disease. Patients with Crohn’s disease can feel pain; the condition makes the intestines empty frequently, resulting in diarrhea. Crohn’s disease is not contagious, but it does have a slight genetic (inherited) tendency. An x-ray study of the small intestine may be used to diagnose Crohn’s disease. The exact cause of this disease is unknown. Crohn’s disease symptoms will often vary depending on which part of the gut is affected. When the wall of the affected part of the gut is inflamed, the patient may experience the following symptoms: Pain – the level of pain varies according to the patient, and where the inflammation is in the gut. Most commonly, pain will be felt at the lower-right side of the abdomen; because the majority of inflammations are locate in the ileum (lower end of the small intestine).Ulcers in the gut – ulcers are raw areas in the gut that may bleed. If they do bleed the patient may notice blood in his/her stools .Mouth ulcers – mouth ulcers are commonly experienced by people with Crohn’s disease. Diarrhea – can be mild to very severe. Sometimes there may be mucus, blood. The patient may want to go and find there is nothing to pass. Fatigue – patients with Crohn’s disease may  sometimes feel extremely tired. Fever is also possible during fatigue. Altered appetite – generally, people with Crohn’s disease have periods when their appetite is very low. Weight loss – this is common, especially when the patient experiences loss of appetite. Anemia – if the patient is losing blood there is a risk of anemia. Rectal bleeding and anal fissures – when the skin of the anus becomes cracked there will be anal fissures. These may become painful and can bleed. There is no â€Å"cure† for Crohn’s disease, but medical therapy with one or more drugs provides a means to treat early Crohn’s disease and relieve its symptoms. The most common drugs prescribed are corticosteroids, such as prednisone and methylprednisolone, and various anti-inflammatory agents. The main treatment for Crohn’s disease is medicine to stop the inflammation in the intestine and medicine to prevent flare-ups and keep the individual in remission. Treatment may include medications, surgery, nutrition supplementation, or a combination of these options; these are some of the medications used in the treatment: Anti-inflammation medications, Cortisone or steroids, Immune system suppressors, Biological therapies, Antibiotics, Anti-diarrheal medications and fluid replacements. Children with Crohn’s disease may need high-calorie liquid formulas, especially if their growth is being affected. The majority of Crohn’s disease patients will nee d surgery at some time. When medications no longer control symptoms the only solution sometimes is to operate. Surgery can relieve symptoms that did not respond to medication, or to correct complications, such as abscess, perforation, bleeding, and blockage. Removing part of the intestine can help, but it does not cure Crohn’s disease. Inflammation often returns to the area next to where the affected part of the gut was removed. Some Crohn’s disease patients may require more than one operation during their lives. Hypnotherapy is a healing approach that creates a state of deep relaxation and heightened concentration. A report published in 2000 indicates that hypnotherapy shows promise as a means of improving immune function and relieving symptoms in people with Crohn’s disease In a 2004 study, patients with mild to moderately active Crohn’s disease had a decrease in disease activity after receiving 10 sessions of acupuncture (a needle-based therapy long used to treat inflammatory bowel disease in traditional Chinese  medicine). In addition to taking medications an d making dietary changes, certain lifestyle changes may help those with Crohn’s disease. Living with the condition often means making changes such as quitting the use of tobacco products and reducing stress. People with Crohn’s disease may also benefit from receiving counseling or support. your diet to control your symptoms. You might need to: Limit dairy products, try low-fat foods Experiment with how much protein and fiber you eat avoid problem â€Å"gassy† foods and eat smaller and more frequent meals. Many people with Crohn’s are lactose intolerant. Luckily, there’s a great dairy alternative: almond milk, which is made from ground-up almonds and can be fortified to contain as much calcium as regular milk. Exercise helps people with Crohn’s disease, both in terms of maintaining health and reducing stress. Exercise is considered safe for people with Crohn’s disease, but anyone with a chronic illness should talk to their doctor before starting a new exercise or fitness regimen. It is especially important for people with Crohnâ⠂¬â„¢s disease to drink water before and during exercise to prevent dehydration. Avoid extreme changes in body temperature during exercise. Citations Wong, C. (2012, September 19). Natural Remedies for Crohn’s Disease. Alternative Medicine – Everything You Need to Know About Alternative Medicine. Retrieved January 14, 2013, from http://altmedicine.about.com/od/crohnsdisease/a/crohns_alttherapies.htm N.P. (2009, May 28). â€Å"What Is Crohn’s Disease? What Causes Crohn’s Disease?.† Medical News Today. Retrieved from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/151620.php. Ehrlich, S. (2012, December 31). Crohn’s disease. University of Maryland Medical Center | Home. Retrieved January 15, 13, from http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/crohns-disease-000043.htm

The Quran Essays

The Quran Essays The Quran Paper The Quran Paper Quranic revelations are regarded by Muslims as the words of God, intended to correct any errors or differences in previous holy books such as the Old and New Testaments. The Quran specifically mentions that Muhammad was the messenger to the whole of mankind, and that he is the last messenger to be sent. The Quran is the final message that reiterates the basic religion God ordained for the Jews and the Christians, as well as the Muslims. Muslims also believe that the book was sent down to human kind in order to put everything into the correct perspective or position. The Quran was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by God in Arabic. The Quran is regarded by Muslims as a book of signs not science although the Quran contains many scientific statements in various topics including embryology and the creation of the earth. The Qur’an teaches that everyone is equal in the sight of God regardless of their skin colour or their background. The Qur’an calls everyone to tawheed (oneness of God) and that there will be a time in which every human will be accountable for their action. Muslims believe that the Quran is different from all other books in ways that are impossible for any other book to be, such that similar texts cannot be written by humans. The Quran itself challenges any who disagree with its divine origin to produce a text of a miraculous nature. Scholars of Islam believe that its poetic form is unique and of a fashion that cannot be written by humans. There are 114 chapters in the Quran, which is written in the Arabic language. Out of the 114 chapters, 86 were revealed in the twelve years that the Prophet lived in Mecca after the revelation. The other 28 chapters were revealed in Medina. The longest chapter of the Quran is Surah Baqarah (The Cow) with 286 verses and the shortest is Surah Al-Kauthar (abundance) which has 3 verses. The Quran is sometimes divided into 30 roughly equal parts, known as ‘juz. These divisions make it easier for Muslims to read the Quran during the course of a month and many will read one juz each day, particularly during the month of Ramadan. Translations of the Quran exist in over 40 languages but Muslims are still taught to learn and recite it in Arabic, even if this is not their native language and they cannot converse in it. Translations are also considered by most Muslims as new versions of the book, rather than as translations in the conventional sense. In my opinion the Qur’an is a unique book due to the scientific statements which have been discovered recently using advanced technology. Beside that the Quran is also unique because of the structure and accuracy. One of the most remarkable things about the Quran is that it’s still the same book for the past 1400 years.

Image Processing and Enhancement Essay Example

Image Processing and Enhancement Essay Example Image Processing and Enhancement Essay Image Processing and Enhancement Essay Remote sensing (RS), also called earth observation, refers to obtaining information about objects or areas at the Earth? s surface without being in direct contact with the object or area. Humans accomplish this task with aid of eyes or by the sense of smell or hearing; so, remote sensing is day-today business for people.Remote sensing can be broadly defined as the collection and interpretation of information about an object, area, or event without being in physical contact with the object. Remote-sensing data play a growing role in studies of natural and semi natural environments, a role that stretches from a visual interpretation to sophisticated extraction of information by advanced image analysis and statistical algorithms. In their raw form, as received from imaging sensors mounted on satellite platforms, remotelysensed data generally contain flaws or deficiencies with respect to a particular application.To extract basic information from remotely-sensed data the flaws or deficiencies must remove or corrected. In this paper I will try to describes some important general means of image correction because it is difficult to decide what should be included under the heading of image correction, since the definition of what is, or is not, a deficiency in the data depends to a considerable extent on the use to which those data are to be put. So I will discuss the title like image Preprocessing, Digital image, image enhancement and other important titles related to Image correction and better image interpretation means.The other idea raised and discussed in this paper is the relationship between vegetation index and vegetation degradation by using remotely sensed data. 2. Function of image preprocessing and its importance for image Analysis The function of an image preprocessing is a means to applying some methods in order to correct image deficiencies and removal of flaws before using the images for other purposes. Mather and Koch (2011) stated that In their raw form, as received from imaging sensors mounted on satellite platforms, remotelys 1 a) before haze removal b) After haze removal 2 Figure 3 Haze Reduction 5 B) Sun angle correction According to Bakker and et al. (2011) stated that The position of the sun relative to the earth changes depending on time of the day and the day of the year. As a result, the image data of different seasons are acquired under different solar illumination. An absolute correction involves dividing the DN-values in the image data by the sine of the solar elevation angle. Landsat 7 ETM+ color infrared composites acquired with different sun angle. (A) The left image was acquired with a sun elevation of 37Â ° and right image. B) With a sun elevation of 42Â °. The difference in reflectance is clearly shown. (C) (B) The left image was corrected to meet the right image. Figure 4 Sun angle Correction 2. 2. Geometric Correction Geometric distortion is an error on image which occurred by one of the two possibilities either internally on the geometry of the sensor or externally the altitude of the sensor or the shape of the object. Supporting to this idea Kuznetsov and et al. (2012) describe that geometric distortion is an error on image, between the actual image coordinates and the ideal image coordinates.Geometric distortion is classified in to internal distortion resultin g from the geometry of the sensor and external distortion resulting from the altitude of the sensor or the shape of the object. 6 To correct such geometric distortion on the image we should use different geometric correction methods. Murayam and Dassanayake (2010) stated that geometric corrections include correcting for geometric distortions due to sensor-Earth geometry variations, and conversion of the data to real world coordinates (e. g. latitude and longitude) on the Earths surface.Conversion of the data to real world coordinates are carried by analyzing well distributed Ground Control Points (GCPs). This is done in two steps Geo-referencing: This involves the calculation of the appropriate transformation from image to terrain coordinates. Landsat 30m ETM+ Image Quickbird . 7m Natural Color Image Ground control points are identified between the two images in recognizable locations. These points should be static relative to temporal change. In this case road intersections are the best source of GCP’s. Features that move through time (i. e. horelines, etc. ) should be avoided if possible. Figure 5 Georeferencing Geocoding: This step involves resembling the image to obtain a new image in which all pixels are correctly positioned within the terrain coordinate system. Resampling is used to determine the digital values to place in the new pixel locations of the corrected output image. Figure 6 Geo coding 7 There are different techniques of resampling methods according Murayam and Dassanayake (2010) there is three techniques of resampling: 1. Nearest Neighborhood 2. Bi-linear interpolation 3. Cubic Convolution 1.Nearest Neighborhood According to Rees (2011) the nearest neighbor approach uses the value of the closest input pixel for the output pixel value. To determine the nearest neighbor, the algorithm uses the inverse of the transformation matrix to calculate the image file coordinates of the desired geographic coordinate. The pixel value occupying the c losest image file coordinate to the estimated coordinate will be used for the output pixel value in the geo-referenced image. This means that the nearest pixel value has more influence than apart pixel. Figure7.Nearest Neighborhood ADVANTAGES: Output values are the original input values. Other methods of resampling tend to average surrounding values. This may be an important consideration when discriminating between vegetation types or locating boundaries. Since original data are retained, this method is recommended before classification. Easy to compute and therefore fastest to use. DISADVANTAGES: Produces a choppy, stair-stepped effect. The image has a rough appearance relative to the original un-rectified data. Data values may be lost, while other values may be duplicated.Figure 1 shows an input file (orange) with a yellow output file superimposed. Input values closest to the center of each output cell are sent to the output file to the right. Notice that values 13 and 22 ar e lost while values 14 and 24 are duplicated. 8 2. Bi-linear interpolation The bilinear interpolation approach uses the weighted average of the nearest four pixels to the output pixel. Figure8. Bi-linear interpolation ADVANTAGES: Stair-step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is reduced. Image looks smooth. DISADVANTAGES: Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging neighboring values together. Is computationally more expensive than nearest neighbor. 3. Cubic Convolution The cubic convolution approach uses the weighted average of the nearest sixteen pixels to the output pixel. The output is similar to bilinear interpolation, but the smoothing effect caused by the averaging of surrounding input pixel values is more dramatic. Figure9. Cubic Convolution ADVANTAGES: Stair-step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is reduced. Image looks smooth. DISADVANTAGES: Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging neighboring values together. Is computa tionally more expensive than nearest neighbor or bilinear interpolation. In general image preprocessing is very essential step for better image analysis and interpretation because it corrects different types of image distortion. 9 Similar to this idea Murayam and Dassanayake (2010) stated that preprocessing includes data operation which normally precedes further manipulation and analysis of the image data to extract specific information. These operations aim to correct distorted or degraded image data to create a more faithful representation of the original scene. . Digital Image Formats and Its Arrangement According to Visual Resource Centre School of Humanities (2011) Digital images are electronic representations of images that are stored on a computer. The most important thing to understand about digital images is that you can? t see them and they don? t have any physical size until they are displayed on a screen or printed on paper. Until that point, they are just a collection o f numbers on the computer? s hard drive that describe the individual elements of a picture and how they are arranged.These elements are called pixel and they are arranged in a grid format with each pixel containing information about its color or intensity. Most of the time Band interleaved by line (BIL), band interleaved by pixel (BIP), and band sequential (BSQ) take as image digital format but this is not true rather they are schemes for storing the actual pixel values of an image in a file. Figure 10 Digital Data Format 10 According to ESRI resource center there are three common image digital formats these are Band interleaved by line (BIL), band interleaved by pixel BIP), and band sequential (BSQ) are three common methods of organizing image data for multiband images. BIL, BIP, and BSQ are not in themselves image formats but are schemes for storing the actual pixel values of an image in a file. While Visual Resource Centre School of Humanities (2010) there are four main file form ats for images: TIFF, JPEG, PNG and GIF. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) Description: TIFF images are usually used for master image files. They contain image information in a lossless format (i. e. no image information is lost when images are saved) and so tend to be fairly large in size.They are therefore a good format for archiving images, but the large file size makes it an unsuitable format for use in web delivery or in presentation software, such as PowerPoint. Good for: master copies of images as all image information is retained when files are saved (lossless format). But: file sizes tend to be large due to lossless format, so TIFF files are not suitable for web delivery or inclusion in PowerPoint presentations. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) Description: This is the main format that is used for photographic-type images on the web.It is a „lossy? format: images are compressed when saved and so image information is lost each time the image is edited and saved. T he benefit of compression is a reduction in file size, but the down side is that if too much compression is applied, visible artefacts such as highlighting around areas of high contrast may occur. The following images show the effects on quality and file size of differing levels of compression on the same JPEG image notice the blurring around the edges of the statue in the final image.Good for: web delivery of photographic images due to ability to compress images without too much loss of quality, therefore giving smaller file sizes than TIFF formats. But: too much compression can lead to a loss of quality so care needs to be taken with the quality setting used when saving images. GIF (Graphical Interchange Format) 11 Description: Another format encountered on the Internet, the GIF format is usually used for icons or graphics that contain a limited range of flat colors. It is a lossless format (no information is lost when saving), but as limited color capabilities and so is not suit able for displaying photographs. Good for: web delivery of icons and graphics due to small file size and lossless format. But: supports limited range of colors, so is only suitable for certain types of images. PNG (Portable network graphics) Description: PNG is a relatively new web graphics format, designed primarily to replace the GIF format for use on the Internet, and potentially rival TIFF in the long term as an archival format due to its better compression performance.Its main advantages over GIF are an improved lossless compression method and support for „true color. Although software support for the PNG format has been slow in developing, this is now beginning to change and it may become a more common format in the future. Good for: web delivery due to lossless compression technique resulting in files of small size but high quality. But: JPEG format gives better results for photographic images, and older web browsers and programs may not support the PNG format. 4. Purpo se of image enhancement and Method of Image Enhancement 4. 1.Purpose of Image Enhancement The purpose of image enhancement is forming good contrast to visualize images in a better way in order to understand or extract the intended information from the image. Similarly Vij and singh (2008) discussed Image enhancement is a mean as the improvement of an image appearance by increasing dominance of some features or by decreasing ambiguity between different regions of the image. Image enhancement processes consist of a collection of techniques that seek to improve the visual appearance of an image or to convert the image to a form better suited for analysis by a human or machine.The other writers Shankar Ray (2011) also describe, Image enhancement is the modification of image, by changing the pixel brightness values, to improve its visual impact. Image enhancement techniques are performed by deriving the new brightness value for a pixel either from its existing value or from the brightnes s values of a set of surrounding pixels. 12 4. 2. Method of Image Enhancement According to Department of US Army (2003) method of image enhancement classified in to four these are 1) Contrast enhancement 2) band ratio 3) spatial filtering and 4) principle components.The type of enhancement performed will depend on the appearance of the original scene and the goal of the interpretation. This indicate that performing all methods of enhancement for one image may not be necessary and selection of methods are vary depending on for what purpose the image is prepared or what type of information is extracted from the image. 1) Contrast enhancement-such types of enhancement mostly occur to increase the brightness of the image by changing the DN Values of the image. According to Al-amri (2011) one of the most important quality factors in satellite images comes from its contrast.Contrast enhancement is frequently referred to as one of the most important issues in image processing. Contrast str etching is an enhancement method performed on an image for locally adjusting each picture element value to improve the visualization of structures in both darkest and lightest portions of the image at the same time. Of course there are different techniques of image contrast enhancement like Liner contrast, histogram equalization, histogram stretch and the like but the mean idea is discussed on above even though there is slight difference performing each techniques.Before contrast enhancement Figure 11 Contrast Enhancement 13 After contrast enhancement 2) Band ratio-using contrast techniques help to enhance the images with related to brightness problems but this technique cannot solve problems like shadowiness and the like such image enhancement is takes place by using band ratio techniques. According to Department of US Army (2003) stated that Band ratio is commonly used band arithmetic method in which one spectral band is proportional with another spectral band.This simple method r educes the effect of shadowing caused by topography, highlights particular image elements, and accentuates temporal differences. 3) Spatial filtering –this types of enhancement is very important to avoid over exaggerated details for specific place in the image. Murayam and Dassanayake (2010) describe spatial filtering as spatial filter is designed to emphasize larger, homogeneous areas of similar tone and reduce the smaller detail in an image, this serve to smooth the appearance of an image. Low pass filters are very useful for reducing random noise.It is occasionally advantageous to reduce the detail and exaggerated particular features in an image 4) Principal components- According to Department of US Army (2003) the principal component analysis (PCA) is a technique that transform the pixel brightness values. These transformations compress the data by drawing out maximum covariance and remove correlated elements. The other writer Rees (2001) also stated that the principal co mponents of a multiband image are the set of linear combination of the bands that are both independent of and also uncorrelated with, one another. . Purpose of image Transformation and Method of Image Transformation 5. 1. Purpose of image Transformation Image transformation is a means to re-express an image in a different manner which means it gives a chance to Cooke in good way. According to UNEP (2005) The Term: Transform means arithmetic operator It is all arithmetic operations that allow the generation of a new composite image from 1 or 2 or more bands of a multi-spectral, multi-temporal, multi-frequencies (wavelengths), multi-polarization, multi-incidence angle images.The resulting image may have properties which makes it suitable to particular purpose than the original. 14 1) New Information extraction from the exited data like Change detection, vegetation info, geological info 2. Data dimensionality reduction storage efficiency processing efficiency reduce the # of bands and reduce time 3. Produce more physically relevant spectral feature space Similarly Mather and Koch (2011) discussed an image transform is an operation that reexpresses in a different, and possibly more meaningful, form all or part of the information content of a multispectral or grey scale image.From the above idea we can understand that by applying image transformation with different transformation techniques we can extract new information with best visualization and minimum storage. 5. 2. Method of Image Transformation Different writers classified method of image transformation differently because of their purpose study for this paper I choose UNEP (2005) Method of image transformation. According to UNEP(2005) Method Image transformation can be classified into 6 these are 1. Simple Arithmetic Operations 2. Empirically-Based Image Transformation 3.Principal Component Analysis 4. Multiple Discriminant Analysis 5. Hue, Saturation and Intensity (HIS) 6. Fourier Transformation 1. Simple Arithmetic Operations Applying one of arithmetic operation among Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division to perform simple transformation. They performed on 2 or more co-registered images of the same geographical area. The images could be separate spectral bands from single MSS or TM data set or they may be individual band s from data sets that have been imaged at different dates. 1. Image Addition If multiple images of a given region are available for approximately the same date and if part of one of the images has some noise (spectral problem, haze, fog, cloud), then that part can be compensated from the other images available. 15 1. 2 Image Subtraction: To assess the degree of change in an area, two dates of coo-registered images can be used with subtraction operation. October 1988 Figure 12. Change Detection 1. 3 Image Multiplication: May 1992 If the analyst is interested in a part of an image, then extracting that area can be done by multiplying the area by 1 and t he rest by 0.This applied only when the boundary of the area of interest is irregular. 1. 4 Image Division: Image Ratio: Dividing the pixels in one image by the corresponding pixels in a second image. Most commonly used transformation. It is very important transformation techniques because ? ? Certain aspect of the shape of spectral reflectance curves of the different earth surface cover types can be brought out by ratio. Undesirable effects on the recorded images such as the effect of variable illumination resulting from variation in topography can be reduced by ratio. . Empirically-Based Image Transformation Experience with Landsat MSS data for agriculture areas and with the difficulties encountered in the use of ratio transformed and Principal Component, led to the development of Image Transformation that was based on the OBSERVATIONS: 16 2. 1 Perpendicular Vegetation Index PVI A plot of reflectance measured in the visible red band against reflectance in the Near IR for a partly vegetated area will results in a plot like and use soil line for calculating vegetation distance from the line two-dimension space. . 2 Tasseled Cap Transformation PVI considers spectral variation in two of the 4 Landsat MSS bands and use distance from a soil line in the two-dimension space defined by these two MSS bands a a measure of biomass of green leaf area. 3. Principal Component Analysis PCA Adjacent bands in Multi-spectral Scanner remotely sensed data (images) are generally correlated. Multi-band visible/NIR images of vegetated areas show negative correlation between NIR and visible red bands, and positive correlation among the visible bands Green and Red.This is because of the spectral characteristics of vegetation are such that as vigor or greenness of the vegetation increase the red reflectance diminishes and NIR increases. The presence of correlation among the bands of the optical reflected MSS images implies that there is REDUNDENCY in the data. This means that some inf ormation is being repeated. It is the repetition of the information between bands that is reflected in the correlation. Principal component analysis helps to remove such redundancy through compress the data by drawing out maximum covariance and remove correlated elements. 4.Multiple Discriminant Analysis Image transformation using linear function called discriminant function. It represents the coordinate axes in the dimensional space that defined by the spectral bands which making up the data. As in PCA the relationship between the spectral bands and the discriminant functions axis derived and the coordinates of the individual pixel vector computed in terms of discriminant function. A simple example: if you have two groups of land with special reflectance that can be discriminated on the basis of the measurement in the dimensional space or in the coordinate axis.Some scientist thinks that this transformation made for special assignment. But despite of that it is found very useful it those special cases where you cannot find solution for them unless using this transformation. 5. Hue, Saturation and Intensity (HIS) Hue: angular variable of the direction of colors Saturation: lightness of the color (toward white) 0-255 scale the amount of white in the color Intensity: color strength 17 I = R+G+B H= (G – B)/I 3B S= (I – 3B)/ I 6. Fourier Transformation All five transformations discussed, they were using multidimensional space (multi-band) of remotely sensed data.Fourier Transformation using single band. The main idea of this transformation is that it uses the gray scale value, which forming a single image or single band, can be viewed as 3-D surface. The raw and column (X,Y) or spatial coordinates defining two axis (X,Y) and the gray scale 0255 value at each pixel giving the 3rd dimension. Therefore, the resulting image or product will show the frequency of certain feature all around the image. So it is a kind of histogram of the image in 3-D. 6. Ve getation index and relation with vegetation degradation 6. What is Vegetation Index? According to Jackson and huete (1991) Vegetation index is calculating of spectral band of data by combining two or more spectral bands of data. Vegetation indices are formed from combinations of several spectral values that are mathematically recombined in such a way as to yield a single value indicating the amount or vigor of vegetation within a pixel . Campbell, (1996) cited in Freitas and et. al (2005). 6. 2 Vegetation index and degradation –the best method of vegetation index is NDVI which is a normalized vegetation index .It a good means to assess the amount of greenness an area in th inverse NDVI indicates the level of degradation of an area. For example Take Bahirdar image in 1990 winter season and calculate the NDVI value and get a result of 0. 7 and after 10 years in2000 take another image of the same season and calculate the NDVI value and get a result of 0. 2. These indicates that in 1990 Bahirdar was covered by green vegetation while the 2000 image show that most of the areas covered by vegetation is degraded and covered by rocks.If the NDVI value approaches to1 the area has good vegetation cover, if the NDVI value approaches to 0 the area has less vegetation which means the area is covered by rocks and if the NDVI value is negative the area has no vegetation rather the area is covered by snow. 18 7 Digital image classification 7. 1 What is Digital Image

How to Answer the What is Your Current Salary Question in an Interview

How to Answer the What is Your Current Salary Question in an Interview It’s almost inevitable that in the course of your job search you will be asked for your salary history- either what you’re currently making, what you made in your previous position, or beyond. Employers want to know because they think it is a good gauge of your market value, and they want to get a sense of what salary level you might be expecting and/or hoping for. If you and the position you’re applying for are not in the same league, asking about salary can save you both a lot of time. That said, what if you’re being underpaid at your current position? What if you know you’re getting far less than market value, to say nothing of your actual value? Or what if you were hoping this new position would lead to a significant pay raise? Or it’s your dream job and you don’t care that you’d be taking a massive pay cut?Follow these guidelines and tactical options for when (and if) you should show your salary cards to your potential empl oyer.Think in terms of your worth, rather than your pay.There are situations in which divulging your salary information is basically like underbidding on yourself and setting the bar fairly low for negotiations. (And, in situations where you make dramatically more than the position would pay, you don’t want to scare anybody away from hiring you.) The trick with this strategy is to find out what the position is worth on the market and negotiate from that position.Address any major discrepancies with your current pay level in your cover letter. If the question comes up in your interview, simply deflect by saying you’ve researched the fair market value of the job in that region, and you’re sure that at the appropriate time, you would be able to settle a mutually appropriate figure. (Hint: you can’t say this unless you’re sure you would accept something in the fair market range.)It’s okay to deflect.If you’re keen not to give a number and the interviewer or HR department keeps pushing you, you can come up with a respectful way to say that you don’t believe your salary history should affect your prospective salary future at a different company- or in a different role or industry. Pivot again to describe the ways in which this job is different, and thus your salary comparison is not appropriate. If they’re all about the dollar amount and really getting pushy for no obvious reason, then ask yourself if this is the kind of company you really want to work for.Keep your cards close to your vest.Take caution, especially in the beginning! There’s no reason to preemptively disclose your salary history on your application. Put dashes in those boxes if they appear on any forms. If you’re asked for a resume and salary history, send just the resume. If they really want it/need it, they will ask, and you can proceed with your chosen strategy from there. If they do call you, that means they’re in terested in you. Score! You’ve just gotten one of their cards before showing your full hand!Of course, this strategy can easily backfire if no one calls you to get the extra information. Then you lose out on a potential interview. (Note: some civil service and other jobs require salary disclosure, but these have very rigid pay structures, so there’s much less risk to you. In these cases, divulge immediately.)Don’t stonewall.If you sense that you are really just frustrating your interviewer by not budging, maybe you can rethink. Try the tactic of honesty- the best policy. If you’re hesitating because you’re currently being woefully underpaid, try just being straightforward about that. This also opens up the conversation about why you think you’re being undervalued, which gives you another chance to sell your unique skills and expertise.The Bottom LineNo matter which strategy you go with, remember that the point is to explain your worth in ord er to get the salary you want. The only way to do this is by selling your skills and your particular blend of experience and expertise. Let your record stand as the biggest bargaining chip. You’re the best candidate at the fair market price you’re asking. It is possible to get what you want and what you deserve from the right company willing to realize your value.

What is the role of the supernatural epilogue to Gogol's Shinel ( the Essay

What is the role of the supernatural epilogue to Gogol's Shinel ( the Overcoat) Does it force you as a reader to reinterpret the meaning of the story, or doest it remove any meaning the story may have had - Essay Example e works of great Russian artists of short story writing, such as Turgenev and Dostoyevsky, he automatically understands to what extent ‘The Overcoat’ has wrapped them up with its structural as well as aesthetic influence. The storyline of The Overcoat is very simple and it revolves around the daily struggle of the protagonist Akakii Akakievich for his survival. Application of the supernatural epilogue in the short story gives it a unique feature and it gradually takes the reader from mundane existence to a world of supernatural existence. As we finish reading the short story, we feel that Gogol’s implementation of supernatural material in the story serves certain purpose. It not only gives the story a novel dimension but at the same time, he also uses the supernatural element as an instrument to reveal true character of the society and its inhabitants. To understand the importance of the supernatural epilogue in ‘The Overcoat,’ it is important to focus over flow of incidents in the story. The reader, as stats reading the story, finds that Gogol has provided excellent description of the protagonist and his daily life. In the course of reading the story the reader feels that he can almost visualize the whole thing and this quality of Gogol has recognized him among modern critics as ‘a pioneer of a new â€Å"naturalist† aesthetics’. The protagonist of the story, Akakii Akakievich, is a typical member of the middle class society of Gogol’s time and earns his livelihood by working in a government office. The author has given detailed description of the protagonist’s apparent features only with the purpose to let the reader know that he does not posses any such external features that would differentiate him from the rest. He is just a common man, who has â€Å"†¦short of stature, somewhat pockmarked, rather red-haired, rather blind, judging from appearances, with a small bald spot on his forehead, with wrinkles on his cheeks, with a complexion of the

EMR(ELECTRONIC MEDICAL RECORD) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

EMR(ELECTRONIC MEDICAL RECORD) - Research Paper Example discussion will focus on various issues ascribed to the process of converting paper-based health records into electronic health records (Hamilton 2009). Specifically, the discussion will focus on conversion of problem-oriented paper-based medical forms into electronic health records. It is quite challenging to provide the exact period of time that is usually required to convert a paper-based health form into an electronic health record. However, there are various issues that may be taken into consideration in order to estimate the amount of time that may be consumed in this process. In my case, the process of conversion may take approximately six weeks. This is based on the fact that the process may entail scanning of the paper-based problem-oriented health forms, which are generally easy to read and record. This period is also based on the volume of paper-based health records that have been kept in the health facility overtime. Moreover, the number of persons involved to facilitate this process is taken into consideration. In the case that the health facility decides to use a different approach i.e. physically typing in the information recorded in the paper based problem-oriented medical record, a relatively longer period of time may be consumed, but this may a lso depend on the number of persons involved to facilitate the process. There are various challenges associated with converting paper-based health records into electronic health records. The first challenge that may be experienced in this case is the fact that introduction of a new data management may prove to be a challenge to the staff in the health facility. This may occur with regard to understanding of the modus operandi of information technology. Another challenge that may be experienced with the process of converting paper-based oriented medical forms into electronic forms is high resource use. To begin with, the process may require use of extra financial resources majorly used to purchase the IT

Legacy of Wars Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Legacy of Wars - Essay Example The treaty of Versailles is one of the factors that took place in 1919 was one of the legendary factors for the continuation of the First World War. This treaty was a meeting to discuss the various ways in which Germany was to pay for the damages it had done during the First World War. The main terms of the treaty were that Germany was the causes of the First World War because it gave Germany harsh conditions and took away its territorial land, making the Germans unhappy about it. They decided to fight back in order to prove they are still a super power, and this came out during the second world war. Wells (2011 P. 82) states that the reality of the situation was that no German state would be able to accept the treaty in the long term. There were various sanctions that were passed by the League of Nations, but they were not effective. The League of Nations could only impose economic sanctions, which were not effective, For instance, the Locarno Conference was a failed peace treaty be tween Germany and France that failed after Germany invaded France the only way to solve the conflicts, therefore, war to engage into a war, hence the continuation of the First World War. Adolf Hitler wanted Germany to dominate the whole world, and did this by tying to bring all the central European countries together. Hitler wanted Germany to grow and implemented this by annexing Poland. ... With these ambitions, Hitler caused problems to various countries making them resolve to war that was similar or more complicated than the First World War. The failure of America and Britain to stop Hitler during the time he was coming up also made the occurrence of the Second World War because Hitler wanted to oppose the sanctions made to the Germans by the other super powers. Orr (2005), states that the war to end all wars would serve as a prologue to the bigger war to come. Most European countries experienced tension when they saw the various actions that Adolf Hitler was doing. They decided to increase more armies and prepare for a war so that they would not have to suffer the consequences similar to what was experienced during the First World War. The best option that was to be adopted was the use of force in order to prevent themselves from the problems that were caused by the Germans, and this led to the continuation of the First World War. Political, economic and technologica l consequences of the Second World War The Second World War had severe consequences on most of the European countries in terms of its politics, the overall economy and advancement in technology. Towards the end, of the war, Germany became divided into four various zones by the victorious powers while they were waiting for a political settlement that was permanent. Japan ended up in ruins following the Second World War, and several military leaders in that country were tried and convicted of causing war crimes. However, the Emperor was allowed to maintain his position, and the entire Japs came into a temporary military rule by United States. England had experience devastating bombings from the Germans thereby making its economy go down; hence, it had to

The influence of economic and political forces on environmental policy Assignment

The influence of economic and political forces on environmental policy development - Assignment Example s, scientists, farmers, ranchers, and climatologists agree that there is urgent need to avail enough water for the purposes of harnessing the agricultural potential of Texas. Even with the rains coming to Texas in the near future, the meteorological department warns that the process of desertification shall go on for more than a century into the future. This is a worrying trend given that Texas comes only second in agricultural production behind the state of California. There are several political and economic issues which should be addressed on this front. While this is a campaign plan, the issues are real and affect all Texans on equal measure. First of all, besides worrying about the conditions of their lawns and gardens, Texans should be aware of the fact that drought affects agriculture with far-reaching effects. The drought increases the cost of inputs of production translating to higher prices for products to the final consumer. The loss of agricultural productivity will not only affect Texans; the rest of the country will have to compensate for the slowing output through higher prices and raised taxes. Scientists have predicted that it is almost inevitable for drought conditions to manifest in Texas (Kelly, 2009). The rainfall models and history for this state and concluded that desertification is eminent. Producing over 50% of the cotton and over 30% of the wheat in the United States, Texas is an agricultural pillar that should not be left to wither. The year 2011 saw to a loss of $3.18 billion in the combined cotton, hay, wheat, sorghum, and corn. Ranchers in the same year had to transport cattle to water points, fetch water and transport it to the cattle, or lose their businesses entirely. In the livestock sector, a total loss of $2.06 billion was recorded. The agricultural sector in general lost at least $8.7 billion in 2011. These costs continue rising as the drought persists in its ravaging (Lauren & Scott, 2011). Another economic issue adversely

Report from the Internship placement supervisor Essay

Report from the Internship placement supervisor - Essay Example In the task performance, she showed a great desire to learn more from other fellow work mates. She used all her ability of independent thinking and critical analysis whenever she wanted to solve any practical problem. In her journey of internship she got associated with the Guangzhou Residential Furnishing of Ming and Qing Dynasties where she learned so much about the behaviour of the tourists and the reasons why they visit specific sites. She was able to gain a lot of knowledge about the lifestyle of the people of Guangzhou a long with furnished furniture that they most use. She applied her practical skill to refurnish the furniture that were used by the people of the Guangzhou to give them a new look than the previous one. She participated in improving and making unique gates, designers fine glasses as well as curved screens. As a result she gained a wide range of knowledge and skills that she acquired through communicating with other people. While undertaking her duties, she was v ery flexible to employ her skills in solving any practical problem that may arise while at the job. She pioneered innovative spirits whenever she worked, she was very fast at accepting any thing that was new through her constructive thinking to be able to employ her own ideas and visions. One of her favourite areas of operation while undertaking her internship was ingenious exhibition where she perform majorly the task of craftsmanship and creativity. She explored her creative knowledge on various innovative items including canton embroidery collection. She performed all her duties with a lot of intelligence and as a result she got a good reputation with most of her workmates and even with her leaders. She never provided any kind of excuse while at the job and she was ever punctual in reporting for work. She is a character that co-exist well with other

The influence of economic and political forces on environmental policy Assignment

The influence of economic and political forces on environmental policy development - Assignment Example s, scientists, farmers, ranchers, and climatologists agree that there is urgent need to avail enough water for the purposes of harnessing the agricultural potential of Texas. Even with the rains coming to Texas in the near future, the meteorological department warns that the process of desertification shall go on for more than a century into the future. This is a worrying trend given that Texas comes only second in agricultural production behind the state of California. There are several political and economic issues which should be addressed on this front. While this is a campaign plan, the issues are real and affect all Texans on equal measure. First of all, besides worrying about the conditions of their lawns and gardens, Texans should be aware of the fact that drought affects agriculture with far-reaching effects. The drought increases the cost of inputs of production translating to higher prices for products to the final consumer. The loss of agricultural productivity will not only affect Texans; the rest of the country will have to compensate for the slowing output through higher prices and raised taxes. Scientists have predicted that it is almost inevitable for drought conditions to manifest in Texas (Kelly, 2009). The rainfall models and history for this state and concluded that desertification is eminent. Producing over 50% of the cotton and over 30% of the wheat in the United States, Texas is an agricultural pillar that should not be left to wither. The year 2011 saw to a loss of $3.18 billion in the combined cotton, hay, wheat, sorghum, and corn. Ranchers in the same year had to transport cattle to water points, fetch water and transport it to the cattle, or lose their businesses entirely. In the livestock sector, a total loss of $2.06 billion was recorded. The agricultural sector in general lost at least $8.7 billion in 2011. These costs continue rising as the drought persists in its ravaging (Lauren & Scott, 2011). Another economic issue adversely

Personal Statement Adjust(including) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Personal Statement Adjust(including) - Essay Example Moreover, different forms of communication and technology has massive effects on communication. As such, communication is a diverse topic with numerous applications. Hence, I chose to major in communication with an aim of understanding all the dynamics and detail that relate to communication. I plan to enable easier flow of communication between different persons. Nevertheless, I have a personal experience on communication that motivated to major in this subject. When I was studying in high school in Hong Kong, my tutor asked me to do a project on environmental sustainability. We additionally established a group to handle the project that required us to participate, discuss, and more so communicate to achieve required results. Sadly, we had poor communication skills and thus we rarely talked and thus cooperation was very dismal. Although some group members would communicate effectively, others would not communicate and therefore opted to stay on the periphery as others did the projec t. Others chose to do the project alone and later compare the results with others who equally did it individually. In the end, we chose to present the best individual project as the groups’ final product. ... Hence, it is factual that communication serves as a bridge to better understanding. Actually, if we communicated well in carrying out the project, we would have done a better job. Luckily, I have had various opportunities to improve my communication skills. I was the spokesperson of our high school student association in high school, which allowed me to have numerous opportunities to speak in front of a large group of people. Indeed, when I was giving my first public address in front of a thousand of students serves as a memorable experience. I realized from these public forums that I should learn to communicate with the audience by attracting their attention and analyzing what they want to hear instead of reading my notes words by words while addressing them. Furthermore, in an experience that extended my knowledge and experience on communication, I worked as salesperson in an electronic component-selling firm in Hong Kong during the summer holidays. Assuredly, communication is one of the biggest factors in business success. Indeed, communication facilitates business operations and promotes efficiency in a business setup. As such, when I started working at the company, I conveniently expanded my communication skills and learnt how good communication benefits the company. Actually, there was frequent communication from the management to the employees and from the employees to the customers. Hence, I learnt that every company has a communication culture, communication channel, and the communication language. Additionally, I learnt that communication follows a complete chain and any break points would lead to ineffectiveness. Most significantly, is the fact that the company seeks to establish an effective communication system for

Business Essay Example for Free

Business Essay Convenience Internet marketing enables you to be open for business around the clock without worrying about store opening hours or overtime payments for staff. Offering your products on the Internet is also convenient for customers. They can browse your online store at any time and place orders when it is convenient for them. Reach By marketing on the Internet, you can overcome barriers of distance. You can sell goods in any part of the country without setting up local outlets, widening your target market. You can also build an export business without opening a network of distributors in different countries. However, if you want to sell internationally, you should use localization services to ensure that your products are suitable for local markets and comply with local business regulations. Localization services include translation and product modification to reflect local market differences. Cost Marketing products on the Internet costs less than marketing them through a physical retail outlet. You do not have the recurring costs of property rental and maintenance. You do not have to purchase stock for display in a store. You can order stock in line with demand, keeping your inventory costs low. Personalization Internet marketing enables you to personalize offers to customers by building a profile of their purchasing history and preferences. By tracking the web pages and product information that prospects visit, you can make targeted offers that reflect their interests. The information available from tracking website visits also provides data for planning cross-selling campaigns so that you can increase the value of sales by customer. Relationships The Internet provides an important platform for building relationships with customers and increasing customer retention levels. When a customer has purchased a product from your online store, you can begin the relationship by sending a follow-up email to confirm the transaction and thank the customer. Emailing customers regularly with special, personalized offers helps to maintain the relationship. You can also invite customers to submit product reviews on your website, helping to build a sense of community. Social Internet marketing enables you to take advantage of the growing importance of social media. An article on the Harvard Business School Executive Education website highlighted the link between social networking and online revenue growth. According to the article, a group of consumers that responded most strongly to the influence of social networks generated increased sales of around 5 percent. You can take advantage of this type of influence by incorporating social networking tools in your Internet marketing campaigns.

Child Labor in Pakistan Essay

Child Labor in Pakistan Essay Child labor refers to the employment of children at regular and sustained labor. It is the full-time employment of children under a minimum legal age. The practice of child labor is considered illegal by many countries and exploitative by many international organizations. (Child Labor at Distrcit Level, 2009)Child labor is one of the problems that occur as a result of the responses to the economic problems faced by vulnerable children. In most developed and emerging countries, use of children as labors is considered as violation of human rights and is outlawed, while some poorer and developing countries do tolerate and allow child labor. In Pakistan, a country where almost half of the population lives below the poverty line, child labor is deeply entrenched and pressing phenomenon. Child labor in Pakistan is prevalent in all sectors of the economy, thought it primarily exists in the informal sector of employment and home-based industry. Pakistans high population growth of around 1.6% poses multiple challenges and threatens to constrain limited resources and social and economic development of the country. According to the survey of Federal Bureau of Statistics (FBS) in 2002, the number of working children in Pakistan was approximately 3.5 million or 7% of the total workforce in Pakistan. However, the children under the age of 10 and those working in small and family businesses that are not registered with the government were not the part of the survey. So the actual figure is deemed to be much higher than the official figures. In Pakistan, children aged 5-14 are around 40 million. The survey conducted by UNISEF in 2003, estimated that 8 million children under the age of 14 are engaged as labors. Most of them are engaged as labors in brick kiln factories, carpet weaving centers, agriculture, small industries and domestic services. The survey also indicated that rural and urban ratio of child labors was 7:1. The province with most number of cases of child labor was Punjab with nearly 60% of the total child labor population. HISTORY AND IMPACT OF CHILD LABOR IN PAKISTAN Child labor has been prevalent in Pakistan in all the sectors of the economy, though it mostly exists in informal sector of employment and in the home based industry. In late nineties, the matter of child labor emerged as a serious consideration due to international exposure. In 1996, Pakistans Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto acknowledged the problem of child labor in the country and announced the plan to eliminate it. In his speech in April 1998, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif stated that the problem of child labor occupied a prominent place in the agenda of government of Pakistan. In 1999, Federal minister for labor and manpower, Shaikh Rashid announced a four point policy for curbing child labor in Pakistan. In Jan-99, government announced the draft of the labor policy. The policy envisaged that the government is committed to end child labor. It was also promised by the government of Pakistan in 2000, that the law to eliminate child labor and bonded labor at an economic level would be implemented in 2002 and till 2005; there would be no bonded labor or child labor in Pakistan. Even after so much regulations and promises by the government of Pakistan, the attempt has not been successful till now. Though the issue has received international attention and various organizations at international level like ILO and UNICEF are participating in the issue, still the improvement in this case is very slow. In eradicating and creating awareness against child labor in Pakistan many communities are having a stake. Some of these communities/autonomous bodies working for the cause are: Government of Pakistan Children Parliament Pakistan International Labor Organization UNICEF Other NGOs, Society and Media All the above government and private bodies are actively working for the eradication of child labor in Pakistan. The issue has been seriously addressed by the above bodies either individually or in conjunction with any other body. The role of each of the above mentioned body in the eradication of child labor in Pakistan is as follows: GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN: Government of Pakistan has been actively working for the eradication of child labor in Pakistan. Activities of government towards the issue have been gaining considerable attention since late 1990s, when the matter of child labor emerged as a serious consideration due to international exposure. In Jan-99, government announced the draft of the labor policy. The policy envisaged that the government is committed to end child labor. It was also promised by the government of Pakistan in 2000, that the law to eliminate child labor and bonded labor at an economic level would be implemented in 2002 and till 2005; there would be no bonded labor or child labor in Pakistan. Though the government has not been able to deliver on the promises made due to the increased political weaknesses in the company, still there have been continuous efforts made on their part. Government also identified poverty and lack of education for children as root causes for the child labor in the country. (Arshad)The present government in Pakistan has made elementary education compulsory for children. Along with that, the government has also made the policy of distributing free books in primary schools. This would help the parents, who cannot afford their childs education and school expenses can send their children to schools. Along with all of the above, the following laws are made by government of Pakistan to address the issue (Pakistan): National Child Labor Laws: In Pakistan a child is defined as a person younger then fifteen. The legal minimum age for employment of children is 14 for normal businesses and 15 for railways and mines. The constitution of Islamic republic of Pakistan prohibits forced labor, slavery, and employment of children below the age of 14. The government of Pakistan asserts that the labor inspectors are empowered to carry out regular visits to all employment places covered under employment of children act 1991 to check the compliance of the law at that places. Education Laws: Articles 37 (b) (c) of the constitution of Pakistan declares public policy to remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within the minimum possible period [and to] make technical and professional education generally available and higher education equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Despite a law in 1962 requiring each province to designate areas where primary education is compulsory, none of the provinces have complied. As of now, the present government in Pakistan has made elementary education compulsory for children. Along with that, the government has also made the policy of distributing free books in primary schools. International Conventions: Pakistan is a party to ILO convention concerning minimum age of employment in the industry and UN convention for rights of the child. Through above legislatures and laws, and to some other timely regulations, the government of Pakistan is acting as an active community stakeholder in eradication of child labor in the country. Though in present scenario Pakistan is suffering through political weaknesses, but still government is committed to take the work one step ahead. CHILDREN PARLIAMENT OF PAKISTAN: The childrens parliament for Pakistan was launched on 14-Nov-08, by Society for the Protection of the Rights of Child (SPARC). The main aim of this parliament is to create awareness and promote child rights in the country. The members were elected from different schools of Peshawar, Islamabad, Faisalabad, Karachi, Lahore etc. Besides providing basic rights to every child in Pakistan other objectives of this parliament are: End child labor Educate every child Provide medical facilities to children Protect the children In addition, children parliament serves as their voice to convey the difficulties and problems faced by the children to government of Pakistan. INTERNATIONAL LABOR ORGANIZATION: With the matter of child labor in Pakistan gaining international attention, ILO has fastened its steps to address the issues. ILO does timely surveys within various industries in Pakistan suspecting large amount of child labor. (International Programme for elimination of child labor)Based on the survey they come out with survey reports addressing the issue and recommending ways to deal with the situations. Some of the latest surveys conducted by ILO in Pakistan are: Survey on Child Labor in Kasur Tanneries in 2004 Survey on Child Labor in Glass Bangles industry in Hyderabad-2004 Survey on child labor in surgical instruments manufacturing industry in Sialkot Survey on child labor in coal mine industries in Chakwal, Noshera and Shangla ILO has also been working with the government of Pakistan guiding them from time to time on this issue. It is also acting as a watch dog, inspecting the ways in which government is addressing the issue. UNICEF: The name UNICEF needs no introduction. United Nation International Childrens Emergency Fund, a UN organization has consistently working towards the development of children in underdeveloped countries. UNICEF conducts timely surveys to see the improvement in the case. The survey conducted by UNISEF in 2003, estimated that 8 million children under the age of 14 are engaged as labors. Most of them are engaged as labors in brick kiln factories, carpet weaving centers, agriculture, small industries and domestic services. The survey also indicated that rural and urban ratio of child labors was 7:1. The province with most number of cases of child labor was Punjab with nearly 60% of the total child labor population. UNICEF also set-up centers in the Pakistan, helping destitute children get home. Pakistan is also amongst the countries that get funding from UNICEF to promote the steps in eradication of child labor. OTHER NGOS SOCIETY AND MEDIA: This is another group of very important stakeholders in the issue of child labor in Pakistan. NGOs like ACM Apostolic Charismatic Ministry and Child Reach International has continuously worked towards the development of children in Pakistan to eradicate child labor. Though the NGOs in Pakistan dont get proper funding from government of Pakistan neither from any corporate bodies, still the work they do in crating awareness and providing elementary education to children is quite appreciable. Society and media as a whole has a major role to play in the eradication of child labor in Pakistan. These two stakeholders are still dormant in the issue, but for the development of children in Pakistan society and media have to play a major part. Poverty levels in Pakistan appear to necessitate that children work in order to allow the families to reach their target take-home pay. The lack of economic opportunity for adult employment in Pakistan needs to be studied and taken under consideration; the government also needs strict to inspect the strict implementation of laws made by it. Lack of education is another reason for the high rate of child labor in Pakistan. Thought government of Pakistan has made policies for providing free elementary education to children, the policies need strict implementation to address the issue. Also, other stakeholders of the issue specially Children parliament, ILO, UNICEF, Media and NGOs have to work in tandem to create awareness for the rights of the children in the country. REFERENCES (n.d.). Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from www. unicef. org: www. unicef. org/ protection/ index_3717. html Ahmad, M. (2001). Child Labor: A time to reflect. In M. Ahmad, Child Labor: A time to reflect. UNICEF. Arshad, R. (n.d.). Child labor in Pakistan. Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from http://www.hamariweb.com: http://www.hamariweb.com/articles/article.aspx?id=91 Child Labor at Distrcit Level. (2009, Sep). Retrieved August 1, 2010, from http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de: http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/17333/1/MPRA_paper_17333.pdf H.Zaidi, H. (2004, Jan). Baseline survey report on child labor. Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from http://www.ilo.org: http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/viewProduct.do?productId=5225 International Programme for elimination of child labor. (n.d.). Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from http://www.ilo.org: http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/searchProduct.do;?type=normaltitle=selectedMonthFrom=-1productYearFrom=selectedMonthTo=-1selectedCountries=342selectedMediaTypes=14keywords=userType=3selectedFieldOfficeId=-1resultPerPage=20selectedSortById=4 Pakistan. (n.d.). Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from http://www.dol.gov: http://www.dol.gov/ilab/media/reports/iclp/sweat/pakistan.htm Population census organization. (n.d.). Retrieved Aug 1, 2010, from http://www.statpak.gov.pk: http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/pop_sex_ratio_growth_rate/pop_sex_ratio_growth_rate.html COMMUNITY PROGRAM TO ADDRESS CHILD LABOR IN PAKISTAN ABSTRACT Child labor refers to the employment of children at regular and sustained labor. It is the full-time employment of children under a minimum legal age. The practice of child labor is considered illegal by many countries and exploitative by many international organizations. (Child Labor at Distrcit Level, 2009)Child labor is one of the problems that occur as a result of the responses to the economic problems faced by vulnerable children. In most developed and emerging countries, use of children as labors is considered as violation of human rights and is outlawed, while some poorer and developing countries do tolerate and allow child labor. In Pakistan, a country where almost half of the population lives below the poverty line, child labor is deeply entrenched and pressing phenomenon. Child labor in Pakistan is prevalent in all sectors of the economy, thought it primarily exists in the informal sector of employment and home-based industry. Pakistans high population growth of around 1.6% poses multiple challenges and threatens to constrain limited resources and social and economic development of the country. The paper designs a community program to address the issue of child labor in Pakistan. It identifies various stakeholders in the issue and based on certain strategies and programs, intends to bring an effective social change. The paper also addresses potential challenges in the way of eradicating the child labor in Pakistan and ways for addressing the issue. GOAL OF THE STUDY: The primary goal of the study is identifying the trends in the issue if child labor in Pakistan. Based on the issue, paper intends to identify various stakeholders of the issue. The aim of studying this is to a community program to address the issue of child labor in Pakistan. It identifies various stakeholders in the issue and based on certain strategies and programs, intends to bring an effective social change. The paper also addresses potential challenges in the way of eradicating the child labor in Pakistan and ways for addressing the issue. The goals had been made keeping in mind the resources available in Pakistan to bring a social change. Political weakness in the economy of Pakistan has also been kept in mind. The success of this community program depends upon the working in conjunction of the stakeholders of the issue. STRATEGIES TO BE ADOPTED In order to eradicate child labor in Pakistan both preventive and corrective strategies are proposed. Successful intervention models are also founded so that the change in knowledge would be easier to bring about, attitude change requires relatively longer time frame and finally the change in total mind set and behavioral change requires the longest time. Interventions are to be phased out in the time bound manner and change strategies are age specific and gender equitable. GENERAL AND POSITIVE ACTION STRATEGIES: The following general and positive action strategies are requires to be taken to address the issue of child labor in Pakistan: Change in attitude of stakeholders: Awareness campaigns, counseling sessions and advocacy workshops need to be geared towards parents for gaining their confidence and for raising their awareness about the ill-effects of child labor concerning their children. The campaigns and counseling would highlight the alternatives of child labor, including non-formal and formal education and apprenticeship. Parents would be educated about the benefits of schooling in terms of income and increased efficiency and guiding that child labor in many cases is futile with a very meager income associated with it. Similar services for gaining employers confidence would be arranged for building support for struggle in eliminating child labor. Carefully designed educational and informative conferences and/or seminars would be arranged to restore the self esteem and dignity of labor. Labor Department working with industry should work with missionary zeal in order to accomplish an eventual elimination of labor in a reasonable time frame. Poverty Alleviation: Numerous steps would be aimed at familys alternative income generation and poverty. Poverty alleviation would be addressed very seriously at different levels with the involvement of international organizations, various non-government agencies and Provincial, federal and district governments. The problem of child labor in Pakistan can be managed effectively only if the problem of poverty is worked out effectively, through income generation projects for society and parents and through equitable and fair access to safety nets such as zakat funds and other benevolent programs. Poverty alleviation efforts of provincial and state governments PRSP (Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper) would coincide well with time-bound program endeavors targeted at phasing out child labor from the country. (Beig, 2004)The survey carried out by ILO in 2004 in coal mine industries in Chakwal, Noshera and Shangla revealed following figures: Chakwal: Category Sample Plan Actual Interview conducted Working Children 450 126 Parents 12 16 Employers 60 27 Total 522 169 Chirat/ Noshera: Category Sample Plan Actual Interview conducted Working Children 400 48 Parents 5 4 Employers 10 13 Total 415 65 Drop-out Survey: Category Sample Plan Actual Interview conducted School-going 150 250 Drop-outs 15 27 Parents 27 22 Teachers 40 38 Total 212 337 Formal Schooling, Non-Formal Schooling and Vocational Training: (Kulsoom, 2009)Poverty being major reason for majority drop-outs, provision of fee and subsidized education would be recommended at formal schools. Formal school teachers need to be trained to adopt child friendly teaching methodologies and attitude in order to reduce risk of drop-outs. Apart from the traditional program of study, training at non-formal educational schools should include vocational training health and safety education. NFE schools would be a really essential measure because to stop the supply of labor at source, alternative sources of productive engagement needs to be available with children. Quality of education will also be enhanced and it needs to be attractive and relevant to help reduce the drop-out tendency in schools. Issues concerning child labor, including information about the hazardous nature of child labor and gender biases needs to be incorporated into the educational curriculum of non-formal and formal schools for both male and female students. Occupational health hazards and safety measures: Till the child labor is eliminated totally, the culture of occupational safety would be promoted in all industries by raising awareness through advocacy seminars. These awareness-related advocacy seminars should be arranged at the worksites and at community level, would also be used for educating children about the ill effects of child labor and raising awareness about the value of education and its other positive alternatives. The Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) study undertaken by ILO in 2004 also yielded detailed insights on the same issue. In addition to seminars, group meetings and workshops would also be arranged on a sustainable basis for promoting norms and adopting preventive health measures. Improved Legislative Measures: Steps would be taken for enforcement of existing labor laws. Till the child labor is completely eliminated, increased protection to child workers would be provided upon the consent of the government against the violation of their rights and against unsafe industrial practices including child labor. High powered mystery clients would be requested to monitor adherence in safety standards along with labor departments and ILO monitors. PARTNERSHIPS AND CAPACITY BUILDING: ILO would be requested to build strategic alliances with Non Governmental Organization in Pakistan. ILO also need to consider alliances with consultation agencies working on child labor issues to use them as catalyst-facilitators, monitors and trainers in working towards the common goal of eradicating child labor and reducing its ill-effects. To rectify the problem of child labor, cross agency partnerships in Pakistan would be prompted till the operations are self sustained and fully streamlined. These partnerships would be supported by ILO and jointly partnered with government agencies in Pakistan and with relevant international agencies such as UNICEF, UN department for Assistance Framework (UNDAF) and other stakeholders like NGOs, Media etc. cost effective innovative transformations would be geared towards effective building of District level labor departments, Provincial planning, district governments and NGOs. The aim of training would be to i nculcate learning about a proactive work culture along with a missionary zeal in addressing the issue of child labor in Pakistan. MEDIA SUPPORT: Various media like T.V, Press, and Internet media would be involved in the broad-based awareness regarding the child labor issues, including vocational and formal education. Effective information, education and communication materials would be created and would be disseminated to press and other media in order to win their support and create awareness. Electronic media would be used later as an effective partner in the struggle against the child labor in Pakistan. Strategies will also be made to gain the confidence of electronic media through workshops, conferences and meetings. All the above strategies used for community engagement are based on the following model. Different Stakeholders that are involved in this program of community engagement are: Government of Pakistan International Labor Organization (ILO) United Nation International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF) Society, especially parents of the children UN Department for Assistance Framework (UNDAF) Non Government Organizations (NGOs) Schools and their staffs, especially teachers Employers Labor Union Media in all forms Children Themselves POTENTIAL CHALLENGES AND THE ROAD AHEAD Potential challenges in the way of making community engagement for eradicating child labor in Pakistan are: Weak Political and Economic Scenario in Pakistan: Pakistan is going through a period of weak political and economic scenario. So that will be the major potential challenge in making the community engagement because in an unstable economy implementing legislatures is a very difficult task. Also, making arrangements for funds in a weak political scenario becomes difficult because in this case government may not be ready to fund the program. For overcoming this challenge, fund needs to be raised from major corporate. They should be encouraged to fund the program as much as possible as the part of their corporate social responsibility. For implementing the legislatures, proper alliance needs to be made between Government bodies and foreign bodies like ILO and UNICEF who are already working for the cause. These bodies will help monitoring laws and legislatures formed. Poverty: Poverty is another major challenge in the effectiveness of community engagement in Pakistan. Most families send their children to work to reach their target take-away home pay. So making them understand about not considering the pay of their children as the major factor would be really difficult. To overcome this challenge, workshops would be held and proper counseling would be provided to parents about the harmful effects of child labor and benefits of elementary education for the future of their children. Attitudes of Employers, Parents and Children: This is another challenge in the effectiveness of the community program. In various industries children are considered as cheap labors. So changing the attitude of the employers about employing children by considering them as cheap labor would be difficult to change. Every business needs to be inspected at intervals along with counseling and advocacy meetings with employers to change the attitude of the employees. Same would be the problem with Parents and children. This would be addressed by showing the ill-effects of child labor and benefits of education. Though poverty levels in Pakistan appear to be a necessitate reason that children work in order to allow the families to reach their target take-home pay, effective community engagement can help raise awareness against the issue. The lack of economic opportunity for adult employment in Pakistan needs to be studied and taken under consideration; the government also needs strict to inspect the strict implementation of laws made by it. Lack of education is another reason for the high rate of child labor in Pakistan. Thought government of Pakistan has made policies for providing free elementary education to children, the policies need strict implementation to address the issue. Also, other stakeholders of the issue specially Children parliament, ILO, UNICEF, Media and NGOs have to work in tandem to create awareness for the rights of the children in the country.

ear and throught disease :: essays research papers

Name: Terrean Robinson ID#: 28990809 Course: Microbiology Describe the major emerging and reemerging pathogens and disease (since 1980) and the consequence of these for healthcare system.(Include epi.&mechanism for origin of diseases) There are several emerging and reemerging diseases since the 1980. Emerging infectious disease results from newly identified and previously unknown infections, which cause public health problems locally and internationally. An emerging disease can be cause by a virus, a bacterium, a fungus, a protozoan and a helminth. Emerging disease associated with viruses since the 1980 are T-cell lympoma-leukemia,Toxic shock syndrome, Heamhorrhagic colitis; heamolytic ureamic syndrome, Hairy cell leukemia, lyme disease, AIDS, Peptic ulcer disease,Venezuelan haemorrhagic fever, Conjunctivitis, disseminated disease ,cholera,Cat scratch disease;bacillary angimatosis, Brazilian heamorrhagic fever, Hepatitis,New Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and Influenza. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) was first isolated in 1983. It is estimated that since the start of the epidemic 30.6 million people worldwide have become HIV infected and nearly 12 million ha ve died from AIDS or AIDS-related diseases. Hepatitis C, identified in 1989, is now known to be the most common cause of post-transfusion hepatitis worldwide, with approximately 90 per cent of cases in Japan, the United States and Western Europe. Up to 3 per cent of the world population is estimated to be infected; 170 million are chronic carriers at risk of developing liver cirrhosis and/or liver cancer. Sin nombre (i.e., an unnamed) virus was isolated from cases of a local outbreak of a highly fatal respiratory disease. This was done in the southern United States in 1993. It has subsequently been diagnosed in sporadic cases across the United States, Canada and several South American countries. Influenza A (H5N1) virus is a well-known pathogen in birds, but was first isolated from humans in 1997. Its emergence initially suggested the next influenza pandemic but, in the event, the virus transmitted poorly and the spread of the virus appeared to have been contained in 1997.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are also some emerging diseases that are associated with bacteria these include: Legionella pneumophillai, Escherichilia coli, Borellia burgdorferi, Vibrio cholorae. Legionella pneumophilia was detected in 1977. The bacterium resulted in an outbreak of severe pneumonia in a convention center in the United States in 1976 and it has since been associated with outbreaks linked to poorly maintained air conditioning systems. Escherichia coli O157:H7: Detected in 1982, this bacterium is typically transmitted through contaminated food and has caused outbreaks of haemolytic uraemic syndrome in North America, Europe and Japan.